Reading comprehension Essay Example for Free

Reading comprehension Essay ABSTRACT. sion The (STRAT), authors evaluated instruction, strategies followed reciprocal same-age the effectiveness by practice + SA) (STRAT of explicit in teacher-led reading whole-class activities, peer-tutoring comprehen activities or cross-age peer-tutoring activities (STRAT + CA) on 2nd and 5th graders reading comprehen sion and self-efficacy For perceptions. 2nd multilevel graders, analyses revealed sig nificant STRAT and STRAT + CA effects; however, the effects did not last after fin the program. Fifth graders on the posttest better than ishing icantly in all 3 experimental  control group their conditions Results peers. performed signif con also showed tinued growth for the STRAT and STRAT + CA conditions until at least 6 months after students finished the program. Moreover, on both the posttest and retention test, 5th graders in the STRAT + CA condition reported significantly fewer negative thoughts Key words: prehension, related to their elementary reading reading proficiency. multilevel education, strategies, modeling, peer tutoring, reading com self-efficacy RESEARCH, decoding instruction has had a long and continuous of attention and debate. However, a hiatus can be recorded in the study of history reading comprehension. Two decades ago, strategy intervention research was in instruction received renewed atten vogue, but only recently has comprehension with current studies building on what was accomplished in the 1980s. Now, tion, the challenge in reading comprehension research is to increase the efficacy of in struction in elementary schools by identifying the instructional practices and ac tivities that best serve to develop childrens self-monitoring for comprehension IN READING (Snow, Burns, Griffin, 1998). 291. This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 292 The Journal Previously, students Once reading comprehension could decode, was considered comprehension was of Experimental Education to be a process of mastery: assumed to occur automatical ly (Dole, 2000). Research, however, has shown that good readers are character ized by more than just decoding skills. Cognitively based views of reading com readers use a flexible that proficient repertoire of prehension emphasize and regulating activities (Dole, Duffy, Roehler, comprehension monitoring  includes both cognitive and metacognitive Pearson, 1991), which strategies (Baker Brown, 1984; Paris, Wasik, Turner, 1991; Pressley Allington, 1999; Pressley, Johnson, Symons, McGoldrick, Kurita, 1989). Cognitive strat egies can be defined as mental or behavioral activities that increase the likelihood such as rereading, activating prior background knowledge, of comprehension, and adjusting reading speed (Van Den Broek Kremer, 2000). Metacognitive strategies can be specified as self-monitoring and regulating activities that focus on the product and the process of reading, support  readers awareness of com prehension, and assist in the selection of cognitive strategies as a function of text difficulty, situational constraints, and the readers own cognitive abilities (Lories, 1998; Van Den Broek Kremer; Weisberg, Dardenne, Yzerbyt, 1988). There is no reason to believe that all elementary students spon Unfortunately, and skills knowledge taneously develop essential cognitive and metacognitive Research reviews, however, reveal Allington, 1999). (Hartman, 2001; Pressley that monitoring and regulating skills and effective application of relevant strate can  gies be taught (Dole et al. , 1991; Pressley, 2000; Pressley et al. , 1989). In this Jones, 1992; Block, 1993; respect, recent studies (Baumann, Seifert-Kessell, Dole et al. ; Dole, Brown, Thrathen, 1996; Pearson Fielding, 1991) and re of the National Reading Council (U. S. ; Snow et al. , 1998) underscore the ports value of explicit cognitive and metacognitive reading strategy instruction, for instruction takes the mystery out of the reading process, helping comprehension students assume control (Raphael, 2000, p. 76). As to the practice of teaching observation re  reading, however, little has changed since Durkins (1978-1979) instruction. The dominant instructional practice is into comprehension students about text content, still very traditional, characterized by questioning with little explicit attention to the strategic aspects of processing and compre hending text (Aarnoutse, 1995; Paris Oka, 1986; Pressley, Wharton-McDon 1986). ald, Hampston, Echevarr? a, 1998; Weterings Aarnoutse, search In addition to the importance of explicit reading strategies instruction, research the effects program of an innovative  on the cognitive, and social, (Belgium) comprehension for reading The study was school children. emotional by a supported of elementary development Research-Flanders. Research grant of the Fund for Scientific Assistantship to: Hilde Van Keer, Department be addressed should of Education, Correspondence Hilde. VanKeer E-mail: Henri Dunantlaan Ghent Ghent, 2, 9000 Belgium. University, This study was part of a investigation long-term in Flanders instruction of @ UGent. Be This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions  293 Van Keer Verhaeghe has revealed that the development of reading competence in the elementary can be encouraged by interaction with peers (Almasi, 1996; Fuchs, Fuchs, grades Mathes, Simmons, 1997; Johnson-Glenberg, 2000; Mathes Fuchs, 1994; Mathes, Torgesen, Allor, 2001; Palincsar Brown, 1984; Rosenshine Meis ter, 1994; Simmons, Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes, Hodge, 1995). The traditional teacher-led evaluation interaction seems of pattern teacher question-student an to achieve insufficient actual response-teacher increase in comprehension,  higher level cognition, and the application of self-regulation strategies (Cazden, 1986). Relying on the teachers interpretive authority causes students to become passive learners. to become Conversely, students readers, self-regulated need to take an active role and to recognize and resolve their own discrepancies with texts (Almasi; Gourgey, 2001). Research has demonstrated that this kind of ac tive reading behavior is promoted by providing students with opportunities to en gage in peer-led interaction about texts. More particularly, it has been shown that, through  students discussions, peer implement, conferences, evaluate, and peer modify and tutoring, strategies, activities, cooperative and discuss of transfer strategies (Klingner Vaughn, 1996; Klingner, Vaughn, Schumm, 1998; Pal incsar Brown, 1984). Moreover, discussions between peers provide opportu nities for metacognitive (Palincsar, David, Winn, exchanges and modeling 1991). In this way, childrens knowledge about reading and reading strategies, as well as their ability to apply relevant strategies, increases. Despite these convincing research results, student-centered  discussion with regard to is anything but common practice in most classrooms reading comprehension Stevens, (Alvermann, 2000). In the present study, we attempted to narrow the gap between prevailing in structional practice and research evidence in the field of reading comprehension instruction. An innovative approach, blending research-based strategies instruction and to practice opportunities strategic the from practices research fields, was designed, aforementioned implemented, More specifically, the innovations comprised two cornerstones: and evaluated. explicit reading  reading in peer-tu toring dyads. Peer tutoring was introduced to stimulate student interaction be cause of the opportunities it creates to practice metacognitive skills. It should be noted that studies of peer tutoring in reading comprehension and thinking skills are relatively rare (Topping, 2001). Following research on peer-assisted learning strategies (e. g. , Fuchs, Fuchs, et al. , Mathes, 1997), c? as s wide peer tutoring (e. g. , Greenwood, 1991; Greenwood, Carta, Hall, 1988), and studies focusing on practicing reading strategies in small cooperative groups (e.g. , Brown, Pressley, Van Meter, Schuder, 1996; Palincsar Brown, 1984; Pressley et al, 1992; Stevens, Madden, Slavin, Famish, 1987; Stevens, Slavin, Famish, 1991), the present study involved training in comprehension strategies rather than tutoring students in word-level oral reading or low-level comprehension activities. Peer tutoring can be defined as people from similar social groupings who are This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 294. The Journal of Experimental Education not professional  teachers helping each other to leam, and learning themselves by teaching (Topping, 1996, p. 322). This definition covers a series of practices, in cluding peers as one-on-one teachers to provide individualized instruction, prac tice, repetition, and clarification of concepts (Topping, 1988; Utley Mortweet, 1997). Peer tutoring is structurally embedded in the curriculum and classroom organization and is characterized by specific role taking: One person has the job of tutor, while the other is the tutee (Topping, 1996). Moreover, effective peer tu tutor training (Bentz Fuchs, 1996;toring is characterized by a preceding Fuchs, Fuchs, Bentz, Phillips, Hamlett, 1994; Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, Phillips, Karns, Dutka, 1997). With regard to the dyad composition, two variants can be tutoring refers to older students tutoring younger stu distinguished. Cross-age in same-age tutoring, children are paired with classmates. The variant in dents; students alternate regularly between the tutor and tutee role is called rec iprocal same-age tutoring (Fantuzzo, King, Heller, 1992). Peer tutoring has been successful in a variety of curriculum areas and age groups. Research has indicated positive effects on academic achievement for both tutor and tutee (Cohen, Kulik, Kulik, 1982; Fantuzzo, Davis, Ginsburg, 1995; which Fantuzzo, Polite, Grayson, 1990; Fantuzzo et al. , 1992; Greenwood et al. , 1988; Mathes et al. , 2001 ;Simmons et al. , 1995). In this respect, peer tutoring is not only about transmission from the more able and experienced to the less able (Topping, 1996); tutors seem to benefit even more from tutoring than students who receive et al. ; Lambiotte et al. , the individual tuition (Fitz-Gibbon, 1988; Greenwood 1987). This can be explained by the nature of tutoring a peer: Tutors are chal to engage in ac lenged to consider the subject fully from different perspectives, to identify and correct errors, to reorganize and clarify their own tive monitoring knowledge and understandings, and to elaborate on information in their explana tions (Fuchs Fuchs, 2000). Because the application of reading strategies re quires actively monitoring the reading process, peer tutoring may be considered a powerful learning environment for the acquisition of reading comprehension the reading process of another reader might facilitate the ac skills. Monitoring of self-monitoring skills and, hence, the adequate application of reading quisition (1978) the strategies. From a theoretical perspective, consistent with Vygotskys ory of socially mediated learning, the object of the dyadic interaction in the peer tutoring activities is the joint construction of text meaning by appropriate appli cation of relevant reading strategies to a wide range of texts and, in the long term, the intemalization and consistently self-regulative flexible use of strategic pro cessing whenever encountering texts that are challenging to comprehend. Furthermore, positive effects also have been found on tutors and tutees social and emotional functioning, especially with regard to self-efficacy perceptions, self-concepts, social relationships, and attitudes toward the curriculum areas treated in the tutoring sessions (e. g. , Cohen et al. , 1982; Fantuzzo et al. , 1992; Fantuzzo et al. , 1995; Greenwood et al. , 1988; Mathes Fuchs, 1994). Regard This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 295 Van Keer Verhaeghe is an especially self-efficacy  important construct, ing reading comprehension, that attention to strategy instruction alone is not sufficient to produce max given imum reading growth (Casteel, Isom, Jordan, 2000). Affective factors result in deeper engagement with text, which translates into superior achievement. Henk and Melnick (1995) asserted that self-efficacy judgments can affect an individ uals overall orientation to the process of reading; influence choice of activities; affect continued involvement, amount of effort expended during reading, and the in pursuing text comprehension; And ultimately affect degree of persistence achievement. Our aim in the present intervention study was to design, implement, and evalu ate complex sets of instructional interventions in authentic classrooms to enhance second and fifth graders reading comprehension achievement and self-efficacy perceptions toward reading. The specific contribution of the present study is the focus on peer-tutoring variants as instructional techniques to practice the use of reading. More strategies. comprehension we specifically, concentrated on an ex of practicing reading strategies in (a)  plicit comparison teacher-led whole-class activities, (b) reciprocal same-age peer-tutoring activities, or (c) cross-age peer-tutoring activities within the same study for two different age groups. So far, cross- and same-age tutoring have not been compared within the same study, and there is only indirect reference material from themeta-analysis of of the relative merit Cohen and colleagues (1982) with regard to the differential impact. Furthermore, in the present study, we extend prior research by (a) sampling a larger number of studies; Participants than is typically the case in strategies-based comprehension (b) supporting teachers to implement the innovations in the natural classroom con text with the participation of all students of all abilities during an entire school year, which represents sensitivity to the interventions ecological validity; (c) tar geting students in the early and intermediate grades, populations that deserve more attention with regard tometacognitive and strategic behavior; (d) including maintenance long-term measures; (e) using standardized reading comprehension tests not directly linked to the treatment; and (f) applying multilevel modeling to  take the hierarchical nesting of students in classes into account. Based on a review of the research literature and the aforementioned lines of reasoning, we formulated the following hypotheses for the study: Hypothesis teacher-led 1. Explicit whole-class reading or peer-tutoring graders reading comprehension prehension strategies instruction, activities, achievement more followed enhances by practice second and in fifth than traditional reading com instruction. 2. Practicing reading strategies in cross-age or reciprocal same-age peer-tutoring activities generates larger positive changes in second and fifth  Hypothesis graders during comprehension whole-class achievement than more traditional activities. This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions teacher-led practice 296 The Journal Education of Experimental is more obvious for sec 3. Improvement in reading comprehension Hypothesis ond and fifth graders functioning as tutees and tutors, respectively, in cross-age peer-tutoring activities than for their peers alternating between the tutor and tutee roles in reciprocal same-age activities. Hypothesis 4. Cross-age and reciprocal same-age peer-tutoring activities second and fifth graders self-efficacy perceptions toward reading more ditional teacher-led instructional techniques. improve than tra 5. Improvement in self-efficacy perceptions toward reading is more Hypothesis obvious for second and fifth graders functioning as tutees and tutors, respective ly, in cross-age peer-tutoring activities than for their peers alternating roles in activities. same-age reciprocal Method Design We used a pretest, posttest, and retention test control group design. To ensure the ecological validity of the interventions, we included complete naturally com posed classes. Participating classes were assigned to one of four research condi tions. In the strategies-only condition (STRAT), the experimental intervention in cluded explicit reading strategies instruction, followed by practice in teacher-led whole-class settings. The experimental same-age (STRAT + SA) and cross-age included identical instruction in the (STRAT + CA) peer-tutoring conditions same cross-age dyads, or cross-age with combined strategies, In this respectively.  tutoring. Finally, class-wide we respect, included practice students a control in reciprocal experienced either characterized group, or same-age same by tra activities without explicit strategies instruction ditional reading comprehension or peer tutoring. Classes were randomly assigned to the STRAT or tutoring con ditions. Within the tutoring conditions, teachers opted in favor of the STRAT + SA or STRAT + CA condition according to the readiness of a colleague to col laborate in the STRAT + CA activities. We selected control group classes to match the experimental teachers  and classes. Because the classes were naturally composed and the assignment of classes to the conditions was not completely randomized, the design can be regarded as quasi-experimental. Participants In total, 444 second and 454 fifth graders from 44 classes in 25 different schools throughout Flanders (Belgium) participated in the study. Except for some small-scale initiatives of individual schools, peer tutoring was fairly unfamiliar at the time of the study. Other cooperative or interactive techniques, such as This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 297 Van Keer Verhaeghe and circle time, were better known and more group work, group discussion, fre used. quently Except for one inner-city school in the STRAT condition with mainly a low so status and ethnic minority population, all schools had a predomi cioeconomic Flemish population. The majority of the children were from middle nantly white, class families. Except for one second-grade class including only girls, there was approximately an equal gender distribution: In second- and fifth-grade classes, on = = 18.55) of the students were boys. At 16. 54) and 48% (SD average, 53% (SD the beginning of the school year, second graders were aged, on average, 7 years and 4 months, and fifth graders were aged, on average, 10 years and 5 months. The majority of the students (402 in second and 422 in fifth grade) were native speakers. Because elementary school students in Flanders are not grouped by ability, classes are considered academically heterogeneous, which was con firmed by the pretest reading comprehension measures. Class size ranged from 15 to 28 students, with an average of approximately 21 (SD = 3.50) in the second grade, and from 10 to 30 students in the fifth grade, with an average of approxi = mately 22 (SD 5. 00) students per class. Second- and fifth-grade teachers had, on Dutch average, 11 and 20 years of teaching experience, respectively. Four of 22 second grade and 5 of 22 fifth-grade teachers were men. None of the teachers had previ ous experience in explicit reading strategies instruction or peer tutoring. We selected participating teachers from a group of approximately 100 second and fifth-grade teachers who were willing to take part in a long-term research study. All interested teachers received a questionnaire concerning their teaching practices and opinions regarding learning and instruction. The first step in the teacher-selection we selected ative and interactive to pace according was procedure student-oriented instructional or content. who Furthermore, of the schools of matching and classes this specifically, in applying experienced cooper and able to build in differentiation we based the throughout Flanders with More questionnaire. were techniques graphical distribution teachers on based teachers regard to selection on the geo and on the possibility teachers teaching  experience, beliefs, and instructional practice; class size; students age; gender distribution; and dominating mother tongue. Table 1 shows the number of participating class es and students Measurement per condition. Instruments study, we used standardized tests to measure students reading achievement and decoding fluency. We administered question comprehension naires with respect to reading attitude, perceived competence, and preoccupation with attributions and self-efficacy perceptions toward reading. In the present Reading tests. We comprehension using Dutch standardized measured test batteries reading  comprehension (Staphorsius Krom, This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions achievement 1996; Verhoeven, 298 The Journal TABLE 1. Number of Participating Education of Experimental Classes and Students Grade Fifth Second Condition Classes STRAT + SA STRAT + CA STRAT Control 6 5 Note. cross-age 163 124 444 22 = explicit whole-class STRAT teacher-led peer-tutoring 22 101 69 177 107 454 66 8 Students 91 3 group Total Classes Students reading comprehension strategies instruction followed by practice in = activities; SA activities; CA = same-age peer-tutoring  reciprocal activities. 1993), which were selected based on the tests well-established psychometric the built-in adaptation to different student abilities, and the fact characteristics, that the tests address aspects of comprehension covered by the strategies part of occasion, we administered the experimental program. At each measurement with an increasing level of difficulty. The questions tiple-choice tence, the referral contained pretest second-grade asking relation for between short six the meaning words, stories, of each a word, the connection followed the meaning between by of sentences, tests 5 mul  a sen and the theme of a text. We determined the scores by the number of correct answers. The second-grade post- and retention tests consisted of four and three different stories, respectively, each followed by 4 to 10 multiple-choice questions, with a total of 25 questions per test. More specifically, questions concerning the content of a text (demanding a clear understanding of the meaning of words and sen tences, the referral relation between words, the connection between sentences, and the theme of the text) and questions concerning the communication between the author and the reader of the text (e.g. , objective of the author, intended target group, the authors attitude toward the matter raised) could be distinguished. Both types of questions required integration of information on different textual levels (words, sentences, paragraphs, text) and were more or less equally distrib uted over the 25 questions per text. After discussing an example, students com pleted the tests individually. To examine the tests internal consistency, Cron bachs a coefficients were calculated on our own data, yielding high reliability scores of . 90 (n = 432) for the pretest, . 84 (n = All) for the posttest, and . 83 (n = 385) for the retention test. In fifth grade, the tests consisted of three modules of 25 multiple-choice ques tions each. All students took the first module of the test. Depending on these first This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 299 Van Keer Verhaeghe results, students further completed an easier or more difficult module. Two types of questions requiring the integration of information on different textual levels could be distinguished: questions concerning the content and questions concern ing the communication the author  between and the reader. an After stu example, dents completed the tests individually. Scores were determined by summing the correct answers. For the reading comprehension test, IRT-modeled scores were on Item Response Theory (IRT), a common scale had been de available: Based allowing us to veloped for different grades and test versions (easy-difficult), or more difficult part of the test. Because they are all on the compare the easier same scale, the IRT-modeled scores also allow for direct comparison of the re occasions. To verify the relia sults a student obtained at different measurement  bility of the three modules of the pre-, post-, and retention tests, we computed Cronbachs a coefficients on our own data. Table 2 indicates that reliability of all measures comprehension was acceptable. test. We included second graders decoding fluency, which is a Decoding fluency combination of accuracy and decoding speed (Chard, Simmons, Kameenui, 1998), as an additional variable, because fluency can be considered a mediating factor on students reading comprehension achievement (Pressley, 2000). A stan dardized test (Brus, 1969) was administered individually to  all second graders; students were asked to read unrelated words with an increasing level of difficul ty during exactly 1min. The score was determined by counting the number of words read correctly. We collected fluency data in second-grade classes only be cause it is recognized that reading fluency is generally well developed at the end of the third grade (Bast Reitsma, 1998; Sticht James, 1984) and because it was too time to test consuming all fifth graders as well. individually on self-efficacy perceptions and related causal attributions. With Questionnaire  in the framework of the present study, we developed a questionnaire to measure TABLE a Coefficients 2. Cronbachs Comprehension for the Fifth-Grade Reading Tests Measurement occasion Posttest Pretest Test module n n an a .81 1 .76 2 3 .66 Note. At each measurement used. 468 167 271 occasion a different Retention test a .72 .76 .74 test with 442 256 175 an increasing This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions .76 .79 .77 41 level of difficulty 403 362 was 300. The Journal Education of Experimental  students preoccupation with positive or negative thoughts or related causal attri butions with regard to their reading ability. Inspired by the work of Ames (1984), we asked children to report how often such thoughts crossed their mind before, during, or after reading. Factor analysis revealed that success attributions and positive thoughts about ones own reading competence on the one hand and fail ure attributions and negative self-efficacy perceptions on the other hand are very (1984) and closely related. This result is in line with the findings of Marsh and Debus (1984), who stated that self-attribu  Marsh, Cairns, Relich, Barnes, can tions seen be as or expressions indicators ones of or self-concept self-effi we constructed two scales reflecting negative and cacy perceptions. Therefore, about ones own reading abilities. It should be positive thoughts, respectively, noted that capturing the incidence of self-efficacy-related thoughts does not give a direct measure of students self-efficacy perception but rather indicates the de a student is preoccupied with such thoughts. In this respect, related to (meta)cognitive activity than data collected gree to which data are more means the directly of more  traditional a However, questionnaires. self-concept by inci high dence of negative self-efficacy-related thoughts can be considered an indication of a low self-efficacy perception, but such a conclusion cannot be drawn from a low incidence of positive self-efficacy-related thoughts. The latter suggests only that the student is not preoccupied with thoughts about reading proficiency or success. We administered read graders and completed at each the questionnaire the questionnaire measurement occasion. In individually. second Fifth all grade, items were read out loud to and judged individually by the students. As can be seen in Table 3, reliability was high for the negative subscale, but it was somewhat lower for the positive subscale. To investigate the validity of the both questionnaire, TABLE scales were correlated a Coefficients 3. Cronbachs Preoccupation With Attributions with for the scholastic the Questionnaire Measurement 2nd grade Success Concerning occasion attributions negative 2nd grade 5th grade and self-efficacy perceptions Failure Posttest 5th grade anananan scale attributions positive sub and Self-Efficacy Perceptions Pretest Questionnaire competence .63 419 .69 441 .75 402 .71 426 367 .83 408 .84 368 .81 393 and self-efficacy perceptions .77 This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 301 Van Keer Verhaeghe scale of a Dutch Profile for Children (Harter, version of the Self-Perception 1985). These analyses revealed that both positive and negative self-efficacy per ceptions were significantly (p 0. 01) correlated with the scholastic self-concept subscale with r = -. 40 (pretest) and r = -. 37 (posttest) for the negative self-effi = . 22 = . 19 cacy subscale and r (posttest) for the positive self-ef  (pretest) and r subscale. ficacy scale. Although we mainly focused on students self-effi cacy perceptions directly related to reading activities, we administered an exist (Veerman, Straathof, Treffers, Van den Bergh, ing self-concept questionnaire ten Brink, 1997), which is a Dutch version of the Self-Perception Profile for Children (Harter, 1985). Because the questionnaire was not appropriate for sec Perceived competence ond graders, we used the instrument with the fifth-grade group only. To verify the reliability of the different scales, we computed Cronbachs a coefficients. As can be seen in Table 4, the reliability of the measures was acceptable. As to the ques tionnaires validity, Veerman and colleagues investigations into the validity of self-report reported that, compared with other scales, the validity can be judged as moderate. Reading attitude scale. Both second and fifth graders completed a Dutch Read ing Attitude Scale (Aarnoutse, 1996) at the pre- and posttest. Fifth graders read and completed the questionnaire individually.

Mafia - A History Essay -- essays research papers

Throughout history, crime has existed in many different forms and has been committed by not only individuals, but by groups as well. Crime is something that knows no boundaries; it exists in all cultures, is committed by all races, and has existed in all time periods. Crime exists as a part of the economic institution and is a lifestyle for many people. Crime also exists in both organized and un organized forms. Since the early 1900's, "organized" crime has existed in the United States. The following will show where, when, and why the Mafia came to the United States, who organized it in the United States, and how it differed from its origins in the European mafia. By showing this you will see how this specific type of organized crime has In the ninth century, Arab forces occupied Sicily. The native Sicilians were oppressed and took refuge in the surrounding hills. The Sicilians formed a secret society to unite the natives against the Arab and Norman invaders. This secret so ciety was called Mafia after the Arabic word for refuge. The society's intentions were to create a sense of family based on ancestry and Sicilian heritage. In the 1700's, pictures of a black hand were distributed to the wealthy. This was an unspoken request for an amount of money in return for protection. If the money was not paid, the recipients could expect violence such as kidnappings, bombings, and murder. By the nineteenth century, this society grew larger and more criminally oriented. In 1876, Mafia Don Rafael Palizzolo, ran for political office in Sicily. He forced the voters to vote for him under gunpoint. After being elected into office, he promoted Mafia Don Crispi as Prime Minister. Together the two put Sicily under government control and funneled government funds to the society known as the Mafia. In the 1800's, New Orleans was the largest Mafia site in the United States. It was while investigating the murder of an Italian immigrant that the current Police Chief, David H ennessey discovered the existence of this secret society. Police Chief Hennessey was assassinated before this murder case could go to trial. Twelve men were charged with this assassination but were lynched by a newly formed vigilante group. The Italian Ambassador demanded that the vigilantes be tried. President Harrison who disproved of the vigilantes and gave a large cash settlement to the families ... ...ia consists of a large group of glorified thieves, pickpockets and murderers. Although it began with the adoption of much of the Sicilian heritage it has evolved into an organization that's sole purpose is to make money using any illegal means possible. The members of the American Mafia use extortion, bootlegging, prostitution, gambling, kidnapping, and murder to achieve their ends. The above research has shown that the Mafia has become a wide spread problem. The Mafia has continued to grow and infest our society from the early 1900's. It continues to exploit and destroy the honest citizens of our country. Now, these criminal organizations not only control the adults of our communities but also have begun, through the sale and distribution of narcotics, to control our children. Crime organizations must be stopped however this is a difficult task. They have infiltrated members of our government and law enforcement agencies with the lure of money. Unfortunately, crime does pay in m any instances. It is up to each of us to not look the other way, but be aware that there are really no victimless crimes. One way or another, we all pay either by higher taxes or by a more violent society.

Strategic Management Assignment

HANOI UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT AND TOURISM —————-o0o—————- INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT ANALYSIS Research in Motion Ltd. Tutor: Mr. Nguy? n Anh Quan Students: Ph? m Thanh H? ng M? u Minh Tuy? n Vu Ng? c Anh Class: Tutorial 3 Course: Strategic Management Date: 16/09/2009 Word count: 3, 261 words I. INTRODUCTION Besides external environment analysis, in order to craft a plausible strategy, the company has to understand itself as well, or in other words, to carefully evaluate its resources and competitive position. In this report, we look into the case of Research in Motion Ltd. RIM) to illustrate this point. Firstly, we will provide readers with background knowledge of the company, following by assessment of the company’s current strategy. Then, the SWOT analysis is executed, and the weighted competitive strength assessments is considered. Lastly, from the analysis, we provide the list of issues and problems t hat merit front-burner managerial attention. II. BODY 1. Company’s background: RIM was founded in 1984 by Mike Lazardis. Based in Waterloo, Ontario, the company also has offices in North America, Europe and Asia Pacific. RIM provides platforms and solutions for access to time-sensitive information, including email, phone, Instant Messaging (IM), short message service (SMS) messaging, Global Positioning System (GPS), Internet and intranet-based applications. RIM is known primarily as the maker and provider of Blackberry wireless devices and e-mail services. It can provide users with a wireless extension of their work and personal email accounts, including Microsoft Outlook, IBM Lotus Notes, Novell GroupWise and many Internet service provider (ISP) email services. RIM has recently reached 14 million subscribers worldwide and had just over $6 billion in revenue. In early 2008, RIM was one of Canada’s largest companies with a market capitalization of $69. 4 billion. RIM had more than 100,000 enterprise customers and an estimated 42% market share of converged devices. Revenues were contributed mainly by handheld sales (73%), followed by service (18%), software (6%) and other revenues (3%). In 2007, 57. 9% of RIM’s revenues were derived from the US, 7. 3% from Canada and the remaining 34. % from other countries. RIM had over 270 carrier partnerships in more than 110 countries. In terms of product innovation, RIM has a wide range of product design and innovation awards, including recognition from Computerworld as one of the Top 10 Products of the Past 40 Years. 2. Assessment of company’s current strategy 2. 1 Company’s strategic approach: RIM’s strategy focuses mainly on differentiating its products from those of competitors in order to serve a niche market for business class. In terms of differentiation, the BlackBerry wireless platform and line of handhelds include e-mail, phone, IM, SMS, internet, music, camera, video, radio, organizer, GPS and a variety of other applications. BlackBerry’s small size, long battery life, and ease of use, made the product extremely popular with busy executives who valued the safe and secure delivery of corporate mail. In fact, organizations that relied on sensitive information, such as the U. S. government and large financial institutions, were early and loyal adopters of BlackBerry and RIM’s largest customers. RIM’s enterprise e-mail servers, which were attached to the customer’s e-mail and IM servers behind company firewalls, encrypted and redirected e-mail and other data before forwarding the information to end consumers through wireless service providers (see Exhibit 3). RIM had more than 100,000 enterprise customers and an estimated 42 per cent market share of converged devices as mentioned above. 2. 2 Firm’s competitive scope: RIM has a quite narrow geographic market coverage, mainly in the region of North America, with the US market contributing 57. % of RIM’s revenues, 7. 3% from Canada and the rest 34. 8% from other countries. The company competes in several industries, including wireless devices, software and service. In terms of revenue distribution, as mentioned above, handheld sales is in the first rank 73%, followed by service 18%, software 6% and other revenues 3%. 2. 3 Recent move position and performance: In terms of competing against rivals, RIM ’s strengths firstly lie in the ability to improve its products both in design and technology. For example, RIM had recently introduced the award-winning Blackberry Pearl and Blackberry Curve, which were a significant design from previous models and for the first time targeted both normal consumer and business professionals. RIM had a variety of product designs and innovation awards, including one of the â€Å"Top 10 Products† from Computerworld in the Past 40 Years. Recently, RIM has stepped up in advertising its product, like images from celebrities like Madonna and Paris Hilton holding Blackberry in their hands. Especially, US President Obama were sighting using Blackberry device. Also, RIM is very brave to open their target market to younger consumers instead of their usual business consumers by launching Facebook, partnerships with software developers to bring popular games such as Guitar Hero II to the Blackberry mobile platform. Another illustration is that just six months after launching Facebook for BlackBerry, downloads of the popular social networking software application had topped one million, indicating that younger consumers were gravitating towards the popular handhelds. All these actions suggest a more aggressive move to the consumer, or at least prosumer, smartphone space. What’s more, RIM is expanding the number of product and technology development facilities in locations such as Fort Lauderdale. Geographic expansion is an essential strategy, but it has its trade-off. We will talk more about this in the SWOT analysis. One of the key factor for RIM to win over competitors is in the field of R&D. RIM employed just over 2,100 people with different R&D areas of expertise: radio frequency engineering, hardware and software design,audio and display improvement, antenna design, circuit board design, power management, industrial design, and manufacturing engineering, among others. R&D efforts focused on improving the functionality, security and performance of the BlackBerry solution, as well as developing new devices for current and emerging network technologies and market segments. R&D had increased significantly both in terms of the total number of employees as well as the geographic scope of its operations. Since 2000, the R&D group had grown more than tenfold, from 200 to 2,100 people and expanded to two more locations in Canada. Additionally, by merging with competitors, RIM had over 270 carrier partnerships in more than 110 countries around the world. Through the Blackberry Connect licensing program other leading device manufacturers such as Motorola, Nokia, Samsung and Sony Ericsson could also equip their handsets with Blackberry functionality and other technologies. 2. 4. Evaluating the strategy: 2. 4. 1 From quantitative standpoint: †¢ In 2007 revenue increased by 98% from the previous year. †¢ Reached 14 million subscribers worldwide and had just over $6 billion in revenue (see Exhibits 1 and 2). †¢ Since 2000, the R&D group had grown more than tenfold, from 200 to 2,100 people, made up about 35 per cent of RIM’s 6,254 employees. Total headcount had also been growing in double digits over the last five years (see Exhibit 7). †¢ Low employee turnover rate and received â€Å"Canada’s 10 most admired corporate culture†. 2. 4. 2 Key indicators of how well the strategy is working †¢ Firm’s sale, market share and customers: 14 million subscribers in 2008, nearly double than in 200 7 with 8 million subscribers worldwide. †¢ $6 billion in revenue, doubling of that in 2007 (see Exhibits 1 and 2) †¢ 1/6 of the market share (Exhibits 8). RIM revenue compared with others: For 4 years RIM revenue increased 10 times more from $595 million to $6,009 million, while the leader Nokia almost double ( $46,606 million to $80,672 million), Motorola from $23,155 million to $36,622 million. Apple from $6,207 million to 24,006 mil and Palm from $838 million to $1,561 million. Overall, RIM had the fastest growing rate (Exhibits 6). †¢ As one of the first to market with two-way messaging, over the years RIM has continuously improve its design and technology with award-winning models like Blackberry Pearl and Blackberry Curve. Also, good money is being spent on investment in R&D to keep up with the change of the mobile industry. This creates a good image and reputation of the company to customers. 3. SWOT Analysis: 3. 1 Strengths: †¢ Product innovation: (a competence) The rationale of R & D Department at RIM is: â€Å"Communication Through Innovation†. ? Products that attract the attention of both consumers and business professionals. Originally built for busy professionals, BlackBerry had made considerable headway in the consumer market and become something of a social phenomenon. CO-OP program with the University of Waterloo. CO-OP supplies business and industry with experience and contacts, as well as the opportunities to apply and refine what is learned in class. †¢ World leader in Business Mobile Communications market: ? One of the only trusted phones for the business-class mobile e-mail. As mentioned above, BlackBerry integrate e-mail, phone, IM, SMS, internet, GPS and a variety of o ther, in addition to small size, long battery life, and ease of use; making the product extremely popular with busy entrepreuners. Accumulated wide range of product design and innovation awards, recognition by Computerworld as Top 10 products of the past 40 Years. RIM had more than 100,000 enterprise customers and an estimated 42 per cent market share of converged devices, and significantly higher market share of data-only devices, in North America. †¢ Secure delivery: ? Source code is one of their few technical assets which is highly protected and is a key role in the success of the company, delivering the safe and secure voice and data transmission on which the BlackBerry reputation was built. This can be considered as a distinctive competence of RIM. †¢ Strong working culture: RIM’s core competence. ? Company culture has contributed towards a lower turnover rate compared to larger companies, and more happy employees. They have flexibility, adaptability and the ability to work collaboratively. There are not a lot of process or the kind of bureaucracy. 3. 2 Weaknesses: †¢ Shortage of physical space at RIM’s Waterloo campus. It is considered as a hazard of a growing company since it is not going to be conducive for expansion. †¢ Internal resistance to expand R&D to locations outside of Waterloo. There are people here, even leaders and senior people, who said: â€Å"What? Products being built elsewhere? No! We can’t do that! Then we won’t have any control! † So, some of it is a cultural shift and a mind shift for the people that have been there and it is hard for them to let go and to be part of a really big company. 3. 3 Oppo rtunities: †¢ Economic situation: ? Many smaller firms and technology start ups are struggling financially. ? In light of the dynamic market situation, RIM needs to ensure that its investment in R&D keeps up with the pace of change in the mobile industry. Analysts predict an immense opportunity for smart phones starting in 2008-2009, which shipments reaching the billions by 2012. †¢ There are not many trusted alternatives for business-class mobile e-mail. RIM could be one of the world’s biggest handset manufacturers in the future. 3. 4 Threats: †¢ Global economic downturn recently caused a lot of difficulties for all companies, and RIM is not taken into the exception. †¢ Explosive growth and increased competition on the R&D team to develop new solutions in the global smartphones market. In 2007, Symbian Operating System designed for mobile devices held an estimation of 65 percent worldwide share of the converged devices, shipping 77. 3 million smartphones. The second position was given to Microsoft’s Windows Mobile OS with 12 percent while RIM Blackberry OS at 11 percent. †¢ Apple announced that it would be pursuing the business segment, as Microsoft and Google were also both trying. Apple’s innovation in its mobile user interface and new technology (thermal touch screen) has created a new trend in mobile phone usage. This prompted a lot of design activities among competitors. Key competitors have already expanded globally while RIM is just on the way to be a global player. As can be seen from the SWOT above, RIM has a lot of strengths compared with its weaknesses. Its main problems that need solving currently are the expansion of the head quarter in Waterloo and the frightful competitiveness between competitors since there are day-by-day changes in technology that is considered as the matter of life and death for every player in mobile industry. When RIM becomes a global cell-phone producer, it has to face with th e competition from giants such as NOKIA, Motorola, Apple, Palm, etc. . Weighted competitive strength assessment To do the weighted competitive strength assessment of RIM, we take 2 main competitors namely Apple and Nokia. In order to have a precise view, we would like to consider the competitive assessment merely in the biggest industry of RIM – smart phones. The 8 key success factors that most affect industry’s members to prosper in the marketplace are identified. Among them, qualified human resource and quality of the products are considered the most important, thus get the weight of 0. 2. These are followed by the innovation to create new product, which is given 0. 15 weight. Reputation/image, financial resources, technological skills and product security are all rated as of medium importance, hence having 0. 1 weight. Last comes the customer service capability with the weight of 0. 05. [pic] From the assessments, it is seen that RIM ranks higher than its two competitors in terms of product quality and product security. However, the company is not as good as rivals in other aspects. Therefore, all things considered, the firm has a net competitive disadvantage versus major competitors, with the weighted overall strength rating of only 6. 9 compared to Apple’s 7. 4 rate and Nokia’s 8. 5. 5. Strategic issues and problems that merit front-burner managerial attention After careful consideration of both industry and competitive analysis, as well as the evaluations of the company’s own competitiveness, we have come to the â€Å"worry list† that is further discussed below. This list points out strategic issues that the managers of Rese arch in Motion need to address and resolve so that the company can be more financially and competitively successful in the years ahead. ? How to recruit and retain qualified engineers: As mentioned above, R&D and engineering were the heart and soul of RIM. Therefore, the growth of the company is in close relationship with the development of its technological human resource. With the explosive growth of the firm, since 2000, the R&D group had grown more than tenfold, from 200 to 2,100 people. However, the industry is experiencing a scarcity in the labor market, especially for high-skilled workers, leading to fierce competition to attract talented individuals. †¢ In the specific situation of RIM, because of its centralization in Waterloo, the company relies heavily on the labor supply of the region. However, this resource is strictly limited. On the other hand, the enterprise also faces threats from other companies, such as Microsoft or Google, as Waterloo is regarded as â€Å" an incredible pool of talent†. †¢ Attracting outside talent to Waterloo was difficult given the competitive nature of the global software development industry. The city of 115,000 people might not be perceived by some candicates to be as attractive as other high-tech centers which were more cosmopolitan, for instance Silicon Valley, or Taipei, Mitaka, Glasgow. †¢ In software, breakthrough innovations often came from small teams led by a visionary. In other words, although new graduates were essential, to be ahead of the game, a good proportion of the incoming employees for RIM was going to have to be senior hires. In the dynamic wireless communications market, exceptional software developers were scarce. †¢ From another perspective, similar to other players in the telecommunication industry, it is RIM’s policy to maintain its R&D spending as a consistent percentage of total sales. R&D expenses are seen as a proxy for new product or service development, therefore used as a key indicator of future revenue potential. Human capital represented the bulk of R&D dollars and in fact, this rate is decreasing from 10. 59% in 2004 to 5. 99% in 2008. This is significantly low compared to rivals’ rate: Palm with 12. 24%, Motorola with 12. 09% and Nokia with 10. 20%. As a result, the need to increase the R&D employees is crucial to the development of the corporation. ? How to solve the shortage of physical space at RIM’s Waterloo: This is another problem that needs attention from managers of RIM. The expansion of physical space is essential to satisfy the current demand of organization’s people as well as facilitate the growing human resource. Whether to remain centered in Waterloo or expand existing geographies: Maintaining the centralization in its headquarter brings about various benefits, such as the nurturing of the corporate culture, or the control of technology together with core activities. In fact, the cryptographic and software source code of Blackberry on which the brand repu tation was built is considered uncompromised by the corporation. It is said by Chris Wormald, vice president of strategic alliences, that â€Å"Our source code is really among our few enduring technical assets. We have gone through extraordinary measures to protect it. We don’t give anyone any access under any circumstances. This vertical integration of technology makes geographic expansion and outsourcing of software development very difficult. † Therefore, intellectual property rights is strategically managed through a strategy that divided core platform development from product and technology development, with most of the core work still occuring in Waterloo. However, it is also concerned that without geographical expansion, the company can be left behind in its competition. How to maintain the unique culture while expanding the company: The culture at RIM headquarters was seen as one of its differentiators and was a key factor in RIM’s low employee turnover rate. The company has recently been recognized as one of â€Å" Canada’s 10 Most Admired Corporate Cultures†. This culture is described as flexible, adaptable and supportive, leading to the ability t o respond quickly to market opportunities of the firm. Compared to its competitors, RIM has a nice and dynamic environment, a place engineers like to work. Nevertheless, this unique culture is being challenged. The exponential growth of the company means the dramatic increase in human resource, and how to integrate the newcomers into RIM’s culture becomes an alarming question. Furthermore, when expansion of R&D is brought into consideration, internal resistance is also heard. People complained about changing in the strategy. So here a cultural shift for the people is required. ? How to compete with rivals in markets other than the North America: In terms of operating system, RIM Blackberry is ranked the third worldwide, with 11% market share in 2007, and the first in North America. In the same year, 57. % of RIM’s revenues were derived from the United States, 7. 3% from Canada and the remaining 34. 8% from other countries. Currently RIM had offices in North America, Europe and Asia Pacific, however, it had only three wholly owned subsidiaries — two in Delaware and one in England. From this statistics, it can be seen that the main market of Blackberry is still North Amer ica. To compete successfully, RIM has to enhance its appearance and market share in other major markets as well. Expanding the global reach of Blackberry solutions is therefore a fundamental part of RIM’s strategy. III. CONCLUSION From the internal environment analysis, we draw a conclusion that RIM is pursuing a reasonable strategy of focus differentiation. Its trend to move toward the consumer market is wise, promising to bring more market share and profits for the company. However, because of its small size and limited resources compared to big players in the industry, it is somehow having a net competitive disadvantage. To further itself in the future, the company should enhance its strengths, minimize the weaknesses together with catching opportunities as well as eliminating threats. The worry list above should be considered carefully so that the company can be compete more successfully in the coming years. REFERENCE 1. Company Histories. â€Å"Research in Motion Ltd. † [Online] Available at: http://www. fundinguniverse. com/company-histories/Research-in-Motion-Ltd-Company-History. html [Accessed 20 August 2009]. 2. Pkaasish, 2008. â€Å"Research in Motion Ltd. Always on, always connected†. [Online] Available at: http://www. oppapers. com/essays/Blackbberry/132559 [Accessed 22 August 2009]. 3. 2008. â€Å"RIM Reviews in Waterloo, ON (Canada)†. [Online] Available at: http://www. lassdoor. com/Reviews/RIM-Waterloo-Company-Reviews-EI_IE9091. 0,3_IL. 4,12_IC2280158_IP4. htm [Accessed 30 August 2009]. 4. PATRICIA BOW, 2008. â€Å"BUSINESS†¦ not as usual†. [Online] Available at: http://www. alumni. uwaterloo. ca/alumni/pubs/magazine/spring09/business/index. html [Accessed 30 August 2009]. 5. Arik Hesseldahl, 2006. â€Å"BlackBerry vs. Redberry in China†. [Online] Available at: http://www. businessweek. com/technology/content/apr2006/tc20060413_266291. htm? chan=search [Accessed 30 August 2009]. 6. Innovation, 2008. â€Å"BlackBerry: Innovation Behind the Icon†. Online] Available at: http://www. businessweek. com/innovate/content/apr2008/id2008044_416784_page_2. htm [Accessed 1 September 2009]. 7. Singapore and Reading (UK), 2008. â€Å"Smart mobile device shipments hit 118 million in 2007, up 53% on 2006†. [Online] Available at: http://www. canalys. com/pr/2008/r2008021. htm [Accessed 2 September 2009]. 8. Wikipedia, 2008. â€Å"Smartphone†. [Online] Available at: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Smartphone [Accessed 3 September 2009]. 9. BlackBerry Nation Sample Chapter. â€Å"Chapter Two: The Birth of the BlackBerry†. [Online] Available at: http://blackberrynationbook. om/index. php/BlackBerry_Nation_Sample_Chapter#Financing_The_BlackBerry [Accessed 2 September 2009]. 10. Damian Francis, 2009. â€Å"Screw You Economic Downturn, We’re BlackBerry! †. [Online] Available at: http://www. popsci. com/gear-amp-gadgets/article/2009-02/screw-you-economic-downturn-we%E2%80%99re-blackberry [Accessed 6 September 2009]. Exhibit 1 Note: RIM Fiscal year ends in March (Fiscal 2008 is the year ending March 31, 2008) Source: RIM Fiscal 2007 Annual Report and Fiscal 2008 Press Release (April 2, 2008) Exhibit 2 [pic][pic] Exhibit 3 [pic] 1. BlackBerry ® Enterprise Server : Robust software that acts as the centralized link between wireless devices, wireless networks and enterprise applications. The server integrates with enterprise messaging and collaboration systems to provide mobile users with access to email, enterprise instant messaging and personal information management tools. All data between applications and BlackBerry ® smartphones flows centrally through the server. 2. BlackBerry ® Mobile Data System (BlackBerry MDS): An optimized framework for creating, deploying and managing applications for the BlackBerry Enterprise Solution. It provides essential components that enable applications beyond email to be deployed to mobile users, including developer tools, administrative services and BlackBerry ® Device Software. It also uses the same proven BlackBerry push delivery model and advanced security features used for BlackBerry email. 3. BlackBerry Smartphones: Integrated wireless voice and data devices that are optimized to work with the BlackBerry Enterprise Solution. They provide push-based access to email and data from enterprise applications and systems in addition to web, MMS, SMS and organizer applications. . BlackBerry ® Connectâ„ ¢ Devices: Devices available from leading manufacturers that feature BlackBerry push delivery technology and connect to the BlackBerry Enterprise Server. 5. BlackBerry ® Alliance Program: A large community of independent software vendors, system integrators and solution providers that offer applications, services and solutions for the BlackBerry Enterprise Solution. It i s designed to help organizations make the most of the BlackBerry Enterprise Solution when mobilizing their enterprises. 6. BlackBerry Solution Services: A group of services that include: BlackBerry ® Technical Support Services, BlackBerry ® Training, RIM ® Professional Services and the Corporate Development Program. These tools and programs are designed to help organizations deploy, manage and extend their wireless solution. Source: http://na. blackberry. com/eng/ataglance/solutions/architecture. jsp Exhibit 4 [pic][pic] Source: http://www. rim. com/newsroom/media/gallery/index. shtml and Fortune, â€Å"BlackBerry: Evolution of an icon,† Jon Fortt, Sept 21, 2007, accessed April 7, 2008: http://bigtech. blogs. fortune. cnn. om/blackberry-evolution-of-an-icon-photos-610/ Exhibit 5 MOBILE TELEPHONE USERS WORLDWIDE (IN MILLIONS) [pic] Source: Created from data accessed from the Global Market Information Database, April 4, 2008, http://www. portal. euromonitor. com. proxy1. lib. uwo. ca:2048/portal/server. pt? control=SetCommunity&CommunityID=207&PageID=720&cached=false&space=CommunityPage Exhibi t 6 [pic] [pic] Note: Nokia 2007 includes Nokia Siemens. Source: Company Annual Reports. Exhibit 7 [pic] Source: RIM Annual Reports. Exhibit 8 Market share of mobile operating system 2008 [pic] Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

German Adverbs Erst vs. Nur

The two German adverbs erst and nur are close in meaning and are sometimes used interchangeably: They should not be. Doing so changes the meaning of your sentence, as the translation of this following sentences demonstrates. (The German word or phrase is presented in italics on the left and the English translation is listed on the right throughout this article.) Meine Schwester hat erst zwei Kinder. My sister has two children at the moment.Meine Schwester hat nur zwei Kinder. My sister has only two children. Learning the difference between these two important German adverbs, and when to use them, will help you greatly in your studies of the language. Erst Definition and Examples Erst can have a temporal definition meaning only or not until. Use erst in its temporal sense when the context suggests a restriction to a point in time or when the speaker’s expectations for a point in time has been changed. These examples show erst in its temporal definition: Mein Mann kommt erst am Samstag.   My husband is coming only on Saturday.Es sieht so aus, dass mein Mann erst am Samstag kommen kann.   It now looks like my husband won’t be coming until Saturday. (The speaker’s expectation of her husband’s arrival time has been changed.)Es ist erst neun Uhr.   It is only 9 o’clock. (The speaker thought it was later than 9 o’ clock.)Sie wird erst schlafen wenn sie heimkommt.   She is going sleep only when she comes home. (Only then will she sleep.) Erst can also have a quantitative definition, meaning only or no more than. Erst is used in its quantitative definition when the context suggests a provisional restriction of a quantity or of time that is likely to change. For instance: Magst du den ÃÅ"beltà ¤ter des Buches?   Do you like the villain of the book?Ich kenne ihn noch nicht. Ich habe erst fà ¼nf Seiten dieses Buches gelesen. I dont know him. I’ve read only five pages of this book. (The speaker is going to read more.) Nur Definition and Examples Nur, by contrast, means only or just. This may seem similar to erst, but nur serves to pinpoint a definitive point in time, a quantity or action that isn’t expected to change. For example: Mein Mann geht nur am Samstag zur Konferenz   He is going only on Saturday to the conference. (That’s the one and only day that he is expected to go.)Sie bleibt nur eine Stunde.   She is staying only one hour.Ich bin mà ¼de, deswegen habe ich nur fà ¼nf Seiten dieses Buches gelesen.   I am tired, that is why I have read only five pages from the book. (The speaker is not going to read more than five pages.)Sie will nur schlafen   She wants to just sleep. (That’s all she wants to do now.) Exercise: Nur O der Erst? Fill in the following sentences with either nur or erst: Sometimes both are possible, depending on what you want to say. Then check your responses against the answers below. Meine Tante ist _______ heute abgefahren.Ich habe _______ zwanzig Euro in meinem Porte-monnaie.Sie ist _______ seit drei Tagen abgefahren.Unser Sohn kommt _________, wenn er uns braucht.Meine Nachbarin kommt _________ fà ¼r zehn Minuten.Es ist ________ acht Uhr.Ich werde ________ Fernsehen gucken, wenn ich mit meiner Hausaufgabe fertig bin.Ich will _________ Fernsehen gucken. Answers Meine Tante ist erst  heute  abgefahren. My aunt left only today.Ich habe nur zwanzig Euro in meinem Porte-monnaie. I have only 20 euros in my wallet.Sie ist erst seit drei Tagen abgefahren. She left just three days ago.Unser Sohn kommt erst/nur, wenn er uns braucht. Our son will come once he has need of us. / Our son comes only when he needs us.Meine Nachbarin kommt nur fà ¼r zehn Minuten. Our neighbor is coming only for 10 minutes.Es ist erst  acht  Uhr. It is only 8 o’clock.Ich werde erst Fernsehen gucken, wenn ich mit meiner Hausaufgabe fertig bin. I will only watch TV when I am done with my homework.Ich will nur Fernsehen  gucken. I just want to watch TV.